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Trypanosoma cruzi, during vertical transmission, crosses the placental barrier. The trophoblast, a continuous renewing epithelium, is the first tissue of this anatomical barrier to have contact with the parasite. The epithelial turnover, including the trophoblast, is part of the innate immune response due to the fact that pathogens attach to the surface of cells prior invasion. Cellular processes such as proliferation, differentiation, and apoptotic cell death are part of the trophoblast turnover. Interestingly, T. cruzi induces all of them. In addition, the placenta expresses TLRs, whose activation leads to the secretion of pro-inflammatory and immunomodulating cytokines. T. cruzi is recognized by TLR-2, TLR-4, TLR-7, and TLR-9. In the present review, we analyze the current evidence about the trophoblast epithelial turnover, the induction of a specific cytokine profile as a local placental innate immune response, as well as other possible defense mechanisms against the parasite.

The first generation of surgical robots are already being installed in a number of operating rooms around the world. Robotics is being introduced to medicine because it allows for unprecedented control and precision of surgical instruments in minimally invasive procedures. So far, robots have been used to position an endoscope, perform gallbladder surgery and correct gastroesophogeal reflux and heartburn. The ultimate goal of the robotic surgery field is to design a robot that can be used to perform closed-chest, beating-heart surgery. The use of robotics in surgery will expand over the next decades without any doubt. Minimally Invasive Surgery (MIS) is a revolutionary approach in surgery. In MIS, the operation is performed with instruments and viewing equipment inserted into the body through small incisions created by the surgeon, in contrast to open surgery with large incisions. This minimizes surgical trauma and damage to healthy tissue, resulting in shorter patient recovery time. The aim of this book is to provide an overview of the state-of-art, to present new ideas, original results and practical experiences in this expanding area. Nevertheless, many chapters in the book concern advanced research on this growing area. The book provides critical analysis of clinical trials, assessment of the benefits and risks of the application of these technologies. This book is certainly a small sample of the research activity on Medical Robotics going on around the globe as you read it, but it surely covers a good deal of what has been done in the field recently, and as such it works as a valuable source for researchers interested in the involved subjects, whether they are currently “medical roboticists” or not.